Latin+America

Spanish Calendar Various people with ethnicities: Mestizos = mixed blood of spaniards and indigenous people Exemplifies the stratification of the latin american colonies
 * 1) Picture Analysis**

The center of colonial economy was the silver abundant in New Spain and Peru. To support the silver economy, there was an agricultural, manufacturing, and pastorial presence, but they paled in comparison to the importance of silver mining. ||
 * 2) ESPIRIT on Spanish-Latin American Colonies**
 * E || * Havana, San Juan, Santo Domingo, and other Spanish ports were central to Caribbean commercial life
 * Ranches and sugar plantations fueled by slave labor were established from the 1520s onward
 * Colonial government mandated that communities send workers to work on public works
 * Indians were paid wages for this work
 * Development of wage labor system on Spanish-owned mines, farms, and cities
 * Mining precious metals
 * Gold from the Caribbean, Colombia, and Chile
 * Silver in Mexico and Peru (between 1545 and 1565)
 * Great mining cities like Peruvian **Potosí** and **Zacatecas** emerged as a result
 * Fueled by Indian labor during the 16th century
 * Transitioned to labor drafts then wage workers (17th century onward)
 * Mercury, found at **Huancavelica** in Peru, was used to separate silver from ore
 * Heart of colonial economy
 * The crown received 1/5 of all treasure
 * Rights to the mines belonged to the crown, but owned by individuals
 * Near mining cities, large Spanish-style farms developed
 * Called **haciendas**
 * Produced grains, grapes, and livestock
 * Fueled by Indian labor
 * Exported some plantation crops later on
 * Competed with local Native American villages
 * European livestock count increased practically as rapidly as population decimation
 * Self sufficient economy
 * Basic foods and material goods were made
 * Basic textile shops were developed side-by-side with sheep herding
 * Imported European commodities
 * All trade was restricted
 * Americans can only trade with Spain through Seville and Cadiz
 * Regulations from a Board of Trade in Seville
 * Worked hand-in-hand with a **consulado,** merchant guild
 * Kept prices high in the colonies
 * Convoy system
 * Two fleets made of **galleons** protected imports and exports from the colonies
 * Two galleons sailed from Manila to Mexico loaded with Chinese commodities
 * Continued until 1730s
 * Only one fleet was lost, ever, to the Dutch in 1627
 * S || * Europeans lived in cities and towns surrounded by a rural native population
 * Patriarchal family
 * A widow assumed her husband's role
 * Arranged marriages with dowries (remained the wife's property)
 * Women had full right to inheritance
 * Slavery was a practice imported from the Iberian peninsula
 * African slaves were imported
 * Grid like cities
 * Large number of Spanish woman as immigrants
 * The abuses towards **Caribs** prompted clerics and royal administrators like Bartolomé de Las Casas to advocate justice and regulate the abuses
 * Conquistadors represented all walks of life, very few were actual soldiers
 * There were women conquistadors like **Ines Suárez**, heroine of the Chilean conquest
 * Saw themselves the new nobility and the Indians as the new peasantry
 * **Mita**, forced labor, were generally arbitrary, excessive, and parasitic (in terms of benefit)
 * By the 17th century, many Indians left their villages (thus the work and tax obligations) to work for Spanish landowners (thus wages)
 * Indians were able to adapt and resist assimilation
 * Development of a lawyer profession
 * Agrarian society with 80% of the population as farmers
 * **Sociedad de castas** (Caste society)
 * **Miscegenation** (Interbreeding and/or interracial marriage) was common and resulted in **mestizos** and **mulattoes**
 * Mestizos held a higher social status than the Indians
 * European ranking of noble, priest, and commoners coexisted with rankings of wealth and occupation that supported racial categorization
 * Nobles > Priest > Commoners (for example)
 * Bureaucrats > Priests > Artisans > Farmers (for example)
 * Spaniards (**peninsulares**)> Spaniards born in Americas (**Creoles)** > Mestizos, Mulattoes, Lobos (the **castas)** > Africans and Indians

One of the defining characteristics of Latin American society was the establishment of an oppressive labor system and restrictive caste system alongside the European social structures. ||
 * P || * **Encomiendas** were grants of Indian laborers to **encomendero**, a Spanish
 * Able to tax and utilize them as laborers
 * Bureaucracy
 * Consisted of, but not limited to, governorship, treasury office, viceroys, and the royal court of appeals
 * **Viceroyalties** were centered in Mexico City and Lima
 * Viceroys wielded broad military, legislative, and judicial powers
 * Divided into 10 judicial divisions, **audiencias**
 * Royal magistrates regulated law
 * Appointed magistrates collected taxes and extracted mita at the local level
 * Ranking: Viceroy > Magistrates > Letrados
 * Staffed by **letrados**, Spanish university trained lawyers
 * Legalist philosophy
 * Little separation of Church and State
 * Missionaries like the **Dominicans** represented the church in law
 * Men signed up on shares basis
 * Provisions and services granted you more shares
 * Family and personal relations got one more benefits
 * Spanish nobility used local nobility as the liaison for labor demands from the general population
 * Only prisoners of war could be enslaved by the mid-16th century
 * Spanish crown moved to ban the encomienda system in 1540s
 * Limit inheritability of encomiendas
 * Restricted the rights to demand certain mitas
 * Caused colonists to seek grants of land instead of labor as signs of wealth
 * Haciendas were the basis of wealth and power for the local aristocracy
 * There were many laws that contradicted one another until the **Recopilación** (Recompilation) codified the laws
 * The crown was advised by the **Council of the Indies** in Spain

The political life of the Latin American colonies was an extension of Spain's political system. || ﻿The church governed intellectual thought since the clergy built schools and universities and the establishment of churches stimulated architecture and artistry. || ﻿The technology of the Latin Americas did not differ from the technology of Europe. The main technological presense was the galleons who protected the convoys from the colonies. ||
 * I || * Colonization was the process of exploration and conquering from 1492-1570
 * Columbus' voyage in 1492
 * **Hispaniola (Santo Domingo)** was the first Spanish colony in 1493
 * 1508 - Puerto Rico
 * 1511 - Cuba
 * 1513 - Panama
 * Start point of expansion in South America
 * 1519 to 1521 - ** Herman Cortés ** arrives in Mexico, kills ** Moctezuma II **, defeats the Aztec Confederacy and replaced Tenochtitlan with **Mexico City**
 * 1533 - **Francisco Pizarro** conquers the Incas
 * Most of Peru was under Spanish control by 1540
 * 1540-1542 - **Francisco Vázquez de Coronado** pushes into the southwestern US in search of Cibola
 * 1541 - **Pedro de Valdivia** conquered the Araucanians and establishes Santiago
 * 1536 - **Buenos Aires is founded**
 * 1580 - Refounded after being abandoned
 * Establishment of **New Spain** in 1535 centered on Central Mexico
 * By 1570, 192 cities were established throughout the Americas
 * Various reasons for success of Spanish conquests
 * Technological disadvantage
 * Conquistador ruthless and cunning
 * Epidemics
 * Epidemics wiped out the Indian population contributing to demographic catastrophe
 * Rivalries between tribes
 * High centralization
 * Conquests were stopped in 1550 to hear out debates about the abuses
 * **Treaty of Tordesillas** (1494) defined Brazil and Spanish colonies' borders ||
 * R || * The spread of the gospel was used as justification for the conquests
 * Indian religion and priesthood was eliminated
 * Extensive missionary efforts by Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits
 * Like Las Casas, some early missionaries defended Indian culture
 * **Fray Bernardino de Sahagún** composed a bilingual encyclopedia of Aztec culture (Spanish and Nahuatl)
 * **Diefo de Landa**, bishop of Yucatán, admired Mayan culture but resented their beliefs
 * Missionary system was replaced by parishes and bishoprics
 * As a result, complicated hierarchy developed
 * Crown nominated clerics
 * Tribunals of the Inquisition set up offices in major capitals
 * Indians were exempt from their jurisdiction, but Jews and Protestants were not ||
 * I || * **Juan Gines de Sépulveda**, a noted Spanish scholar, used Aristotelean arguments to justify conquests in 1548
 * Declared Indians needed to be saved and that they were born to serve
 * Censored due to counterarguments provided by Las Casas
 * Intellectual life revolved around religion
 * Churches stimulated local architecture and artistry
 * The printing press published mainly religious doctrine alongside other literature
 * Schools were run by the clergy
 * Universities primarily taught law and theology
 * Some women were recognized for intellectual achievements
 * **Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz** was celebrated for her art and literature
 * T || * Galleons

Extra Notes:
 * Ferdinand** and **Isabella** unified Spain after defeating the Muslim kingdom of Granada in 1492.
 * Isabella expelled the Jews from their territory
 * They supported the explorations of Columbus

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 * 3) Comparisons between Sepúlveda and las Casas and PoV analysis (in the las Casas doc)**


 * 4) Notes on Brazil**


 * Brazil: The First Plantation Colony**
 * Portuguese first landed in South America in 1500 with **Pedro Alvares Cabral**
 * Little recognition from the crown except for the dyewood
 * New system of establishment was started in 1532 due to pressure from French competitors
 * **Capitaincies**, grants of land, were given to minor nobles along with broad, feudal like powers
 * One major economy was sugar, fueled by Native American then African labor
 * Salvador was made the royal capital in 1549
 * Local populations were rebellious until military action, missionary action (from groups like the Jesuits), and epidemic ended resistance

> **One of the most predominant features of Brazil was it plantation system. This served as the basis of their economy and the foundation for their social hierarchy. Compared to the Spanish colonies, Portugal was more dependent on its mother country as a source of trade and intellectual life.** >>
 * 1) Sugar and Slavery
 * About 7000 slaves were imported annually
 * By the end of the 17th century, there were 150,00 slaves (50% of the population)
 * First plantation colony
 * Model of the rest of Europe
 * Social hierarchy mirrored plantation system origins
 * White Planters, resident merchants, bureaucrats > people of miscegenation, poorer whites, freed blacks, free Indians (artisans, small farmers, herders, and fee laborers) > slaves (property)
 * Governor general (high official from the crown) ruled from Salvador
 * Governors of the capitaincies often acted independently as reported to a council in Lisbon
 * Missionaries, esp. the Jesuits, held extensive ranches and sugar mills and supported the construction of churches and schools
 * Royal officials trained in bureaucratic affairs stocked the bureaucracy
 * W/o universities or printing presses, intellectual life depended on Portugal.
 * 1) Brazil's Age of Gold
 * Habsburg kings of Spain ruled Portugal from 1580-1640, promoting cooperation and prosperity
 * From 1630-1654, the Dutch seized a portion of NE Brazil and controlled sugar production
 * Competition from the other Caribbean colonies in sugar and the rising price of slaves undermined Brazil's sugar economy
 * **Paulistas**, backwoodsmen from an area with few sugar plantations, explored the interior of South America, claiming it for Portugal, and striking gold in 1695 in area called **Minas Gerais**
 * Continued the social system in the coastal plantaions
 * Local wealth stimulated local artistry and construction
 * Massive influx of Portuguese immigrants due to the gold strike
 * Slave labor provided the work force for the gold mines
 * Contributed half of the population in Minas Gerais in 1775
 * Gold strike caused government to control slave trade
 * Sugar and tobacco were still important exports
 * **Rio de Janeiro** became the capital in 1763 since it was a bustling port near Minas Gerais
 * Due to the gold, Portugal bought many manufactured goods without developing their own manufacturing sector
 * Combined with detrimental long-term policies, Portugal became dependent on England


 * 5) Notes of Reform**


 * The 18th-Century Reforms**
 * The 18th century was period of intellecutal ferment in Europe and a period of reform
 * Organizations called the **amigos del país** (Spanish for friends of the country) met in many cities throughout the Spanish empire to talk about reforms for material benefit and not political change
 * Foreign influences and ideas created a group of progressives within Portugal intellectual community, resulting with openness to economic, educational, and philosophical reform
 * Change change be associated to new ideas, changing European economic balance, and changing global demographics

>>>>>> >>>>> >>
 * 1) **The Shifting Balance of Politics and Trade**
 * Foreign wars, increasing debt, declining population and internal revolts weakened Spain
 * France, England, and Holland combined contraband trading and piracy to capture the Spanish Caribbean islands
 * Turned these islands into sugar and slave colonies
 * Annual convoy system deregulated
 * American silver payments declined
 * Shipments were done by non-Spanish vessels
 * Colonies became more self-sufficient
 * Manufacturing of commodities
 * Weakening central government, strengthening local aristocrats
 * Graft and corruption was rampant
 * 1701 - Charles II died without an heir
 * **Philip of Anjou,** a **Bourbon** and relative of the French crown, succeeded the throne
 * Resulted in the **War of the Spanish Succession** (1702-1713) and the **Treaty of Utrecht** (1713)
 * French merchants allowed to operate in Seville, Spain's capital, and allow English slave and silver trade in Spanish America
 * 1) **The Bourbon Reforms**
 * Age of enlightened despotism
 * Bourbon monarchs, esp. **Charles III (1759-1788),** desired strong centralized government to institute economic, administrative and military reforms
 * Dissent groups were punished and/or suppressed
 * The Jesuits were expelled in 1767
 * Noble and papal/church interests were not targeted unless there was conflict
 * New viceroyalties in New Granada (1739) and Rio de la Plata (1778)
 * Sent royal administrators like **José de Gálvez**
 * Exposed the worst abuses of graft and corruption
 * Moved to remove the Creole and local magistrates from the upper bureaucracy
 * The local magistrates (**//corregidores//**//)// were removed in 1780 and replaced with provincial governors (intendants) based on French models
 * Improved tax collection and made government more effective
 * Disrupted the patterns of influence of the Creole, miners, and hacienda owners
 * Constant alliance with French in the global war against England
 * Loss of Havana and Florida in the Seven Years War (1756-1763)
 * Cuban trade skyrocketed under English governance
 * As a result, regular troops were supplied to New Spain under Creole leaders
 * Frontiers were expanded ( up to California)
 * Military means ousted foreign competition in Rio de la Plata
 * Active government in economy
 * State monopolies of essentials like tobacco and gunpowder
 * Monopoly companies were granted exclusive rights to certain areas
 * Caribbean trade greatly expanded
 * Cuba became a full-scale plantation and slave colony with many cash crops
 * Buenos Aires became the regional center of commerce
 * The prosperity of the economies undermined local goods
 * Led to debates over free trade and protection for local economy
 * Centers of the Spanish Empire rapidly grew from the 50s onward
 * Mine inspectors modernized techniques in Peru and New Spain
 * Combined with new veins, production expanded
 * Peru was eclipsed by New Spain
 * 1) **Pombal and Brazil**
 * Championed by **Marquis of Pombal (1755-1776)**
 * Authoritarian (enlightened despotism) and former (to) English ambassador
 * Brutally suppressed any opposition
 * Expelled the Jesuits in 1759
 * Brazil was the center of reforms
 * Administrators were sent to enforce changes
 * Fiscal reforms - Eliminated contraband, gold smuggling and tax evasion
 * Monopoly companies were established
 * Revitalized areas like Rio de Janeiro, which became the capital
 * Abolished slavery in Portugal to reroute traffic to Brazil
 * Removed Indians from missionary control and encouraged miscegenation
 * 1) **Reforms, Reactions, and Revolts**
 * Rapid global population increase
 * Boom in the American colonies during the last years of the 18th century
 * More organized urban riots began due to the greater government presence
 * The **Comunero Revolt** in New Granada (1781) defeated the royal army and forced the viceroy to flee
 * In Peru, **Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui / Rupac Amaru**, a mestizo, led an Indian uprising that lasted until 1783
 * The viceroyalty was thrown into chaos