The+Muslim+Empires


 * 1) ESPIRIT on Ottomans**
 * E || * Geared to warfare and expansion
 * Controlled by Muslim, Christian, and Jewish traders due to the dhimmi status
 * Constantinople's port were filled with ships of spices, slaves, African commodities, silkens, textiles
 * Closely regulated commercial exchange and handicraft production
 * Standardized weights and measures
 * Licensed shops
 * Regulated apprenticeships and quality
 * Guilds existed and served the same functions as medieval European guilds
 * The Portugal circumvent greatly removed critical revenues
 * American silver deregulated economy with rampant inflation ||
 * S || * Founded by the Turkic-speaking nomadic group **Ottoman** in Central Asia
 * Led by **Osman**
 * No tolerance to rival Muslim sects
 * Led to violent disputes with the **Safavid** empire
 * Rise of warrior aristocracy
 * Granted control of land and peasant producers
 * Contested religious leaders and administrators for bureaucratic positions >1400s
 * As their power weakened in the center, warriors localized their power and competed with the sultans and central government for revenue and labor control
 * At Constantinople, coffee houses were hot spots of gossip, business, culture, and debate
 * During decline, the practice of nurturing royal princes in administration and/or military experience was abolished
 * Led to puppet sultans ||
 * P || * Turkic cavalry was responsible for early Ottoman conquests from 13th to 16th century
 * Imperial armies were dominated with infantry troops called **Janissaries,** conscripted boys in conquered areas >1450s
 * Artillery users
 * By the late 15th century they turned their military participation to influence in court politics
 * By the mid 16th century they were another Praetorian guard-like organization
 * Sultans were absolute monarchs but they maintained their power by pitting factions against each other and maintaining loyalties
 * Grew more out-of-touch as the empire expanded
 * More frivolous and lofty
 * Day-to-day administration was conducted by the bureaucracy and **vizier**
 * Used Turkish and Arabic
 * Succession issues remained
 * Lasted 600 years
 * Without conquest, the bureaucracy and army declined
 * Corruption was rampant among officials
 * Empowerment of local estates into a quasi-feudal system
 * Rebellion and flight further drained the empire
 * The introduction of light field artillery and the Janissaries' unwillingness to adopt new tactics crippled the Ottoman war power
 * Battle of Lepanto in 1571 ended Ottoman dominance of the Indian Ocean ||
 * I || * Under **Suleyman "The Magnificent" I**, the Suleymaiye was created ||
 * R || * Various sects led to bitter conflicts ||
 * I || * After the fall of the Seljuk Turkic kingdom of Rum in 1243, Antolia, where the Ottoman began power, fell into chaos as Seljuk sultans established small states.
 * By 1350s, the Ottoman conquered large portions of the Balkans
 * **Mehmed II** captured Constantinople in 1453
 * Then on, the Ottomans spread throughout the North African coast, Egypt, and Hungary
 * Revived Constantinople
 * Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque
 * Reopened markets
 * Built aqueducts, mansions, rest houses, schools, and hospitals
 * Formidable naval power that pushed out Venetians and Genoese from eastern Mediterranean
 * Able to lay siege to the Austrian Habsburg capital Vienna as late as 1683 ||
 * T || * Powerful galley fleet ||


 * 2) ESPIRIT on the Mughals**
 * E || * Major industry was cotton textiles ||
 * S || * Babur's followers were mainly Turkic and mixed nomadic groups
 * Akbar passed various social reforms
 * Living quarters for vagabonds and beggars
 * Alcohol consumption regulation
 * Akbar encouraged women's rights
 * E.g. remarriage
 * Taboo in both religions
 * Discouraged child marriages
 * Futile due to the widespread practice
 * Discouraged sati and //**purdah**//, seclusion in one's own home
 * Did not eradicate //**sati**//, burning a high-caste Hindu women on her husband's pyre due to the indoctrination in Rajput practices
 * Condition of women improved in the middle of the dynasty for the court women, in general it declined
 * Child marriage became increasingly popular and younger
 * Remarriage died out
 * Purdah was increasingly enforced
 * Sati spread despite laws outlawing the practice ||
 * P || * Founded by **Babur**
 * Died in 1530
 * Succeeded by his son **Humayan**
 * Exiled in 1540 by his political enemies, but regained rule in 1556
 * Died in 1556
 * Succeeded by 13 year old son **Akbar**
 * One of the greatest Mughal leaders
 * Alongside of a trend of great monarchs: **Elizabeth I, Philip of Spain, Muslim Suleyman and Abbas I**
 * Reconciliation with Rajputs and Hindu populace
 * Encouraged intermarriage of the Mughal aristocracy and Rajput rulers
 * Abolished the jizya
 * Promoted Hindus to the highest ranks in government
 * Permitted the construction of Hindu temples
 * Ordered Muslims to revere cows like the Hindus
 * Inherited the ineffective Lodi bureaucracy from the conquered Indians
 * Warrior aristocracy formed the core of the Mughal government
 * Localism like the Ottoman Empire
 * Army was stocked with elephant troops and an artillery corps
 * Due to frivolity, subrodinates were able to gain great amounts of power
 * **Nur Jahan**, Jahangir's wife, amassed power during his reign
 * **Mumtaz Mahal** did not gain power during Shah Jahan's reign, but his love towards her compensated
 * Decline occurred due to corrupted and bloated bureaucracy, obsolete army, and falling standards of living
 * Peasant revolts were rampant
 * Led by the **Marattas** and **Sikhs**
 * **Aurangzeb,** Shah Jahan's son and successor, attempted to expand the Mughal empire and rid it of the Hindu influences
 * His expansionism was successful but allegiances were strained, the treasury was drained, and the army was expended
 * Maintained Hindus in imperial positions, but lowered the amount of Muslims in posts
 * New temples were banned and religious festivals were banned at the court
 * Reinstated the jizya
 * Local powers became corrupt
 * Incursions from Persian and Afghan warriors ||
 * I || * Akbar patronized the arts and conversed with Muslim, Christian, and Hindu scholars
 * Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronized the arts as well
 * Expanded painting workshops
 * Constructed the **Taj Mahal** and other architectural achievements
 * Marble embedded with floral/geometric designs of semiprecious stones ||
 * R || * Akbar created a new faith, **Din-i-Ilahi,** in order to pacify the Hindu and Muslim populace and remove factional disputes
 * Rejected by both
 * Hinduism and Islam
 * Rise of a new sect, Sikh, during the decline
 * Persecuted caused them to be anti-Muslim force ||
 * I || * Babur's expansionism was fueled by greed and not religious fervor
 * Akbar expanded the empire south and west due to his reconciliatory policies
 * Attracted many European visitors such as **Francois Bernier** ||
 * T ||  ||


 * 3. Safavid ESPIRIT**


 * E || * Abbas I built a network of raods and rest houses
 * Strove to make merchants and travellers safe
 * Major industries were silk and Persian textiles
 * Abbas encouraged trade with Europeans, India and China
 * Promoted handicraft productions
 * Lavishly patronized public works
 * More technically backward compared to Ottomans ||
 * S || * Called **Red Heads** due to their headgear
 * Turkic cheifs were warrior aristocracy similar to the Ottomans
 * Persian supplanted Turkish as the court and bureaucratic langauge
 * The Shah took titles like **padishah,** king of kings, that mirrored ancient Persian traditions
 * Court/Palace life was led by a sense of etiquette and decorum
 * A more disconnected aristocracy and less uncultivated land for flight and bvreakdowns of vital services incurred banditry, rebellion, and flight
 * Subordinated woman with little political or religious power
 * Women resisted veiling and seclusion
 * Women were active in trading ||
 * P || * Founded by sufi mystics and religious preachers
 * Named after **Sail al-Din** who began a crusade to purify Islam
 * Gained a lot of power post-Mongols
 * Local struggles placed Ismâ'il as a sufi leader who became emperor in 1501
 * Chaldiran depressed Ismâ'il who secluded himself and took up drinking
 * Succeeded by **Tahmasp I** (1534-1576)
 * Prevented subordinate Turkic chiefs from usurping power
 * Expelled Ozbegs again
 * Heyday under Shah **Abbas I** (1587-1629) / **Abbas the Great**
 * No larger territory than Ismâ'il and Tahmasp I
 * Most powerful warriors held important imperial posts
 * Counterbalanced by recruited Persians; started by Tahmasp I
 * Development of a slave regiment like the Janissaries
 * Later Shahs denounced divinity but claimed descent from the **imams**
 * Wives and cocubines of rulers exerted influence in backroom deals
 * Prince seclusion became commonplace after Abbas I
 * Isfahan fell in 1722 marking the end ||
 * I || * Conquered most of Persia
 * Expelled the **Ozbegs**, a neighboring nomadic group and ancient enemy
 * Ottomans
 * **Chaldiran**
 * **Battle of faiths and gunpowder**
 * Ismâ'il's calvary could not defeat the Ottoman artillery
 * Ended western expansion
 * Ended rapid conversions to shi'ism which concentrates it today in Persia
 * Did not reluct from requesting European assitance
 * **Sharley** brothers provided casting and training and instructions ||
 * R || * Shi'ites
 * The militancy of the faith was modified since Arabic-speaking Shi'a religious experts were replaced by Persian scholars
 * **Mullahs**, local mosque officials, were supervised and supported by the state ||
 * I || * Ceramic Tiles
 * Used to beautify the Shah Mosque and other buildings
 * Geometric designs and floral patterns
 * Miniature painting, tapestry, metallurgy artwork ||
 * T || * ||