20th+Century+Nationalism

World War I
 * 1) Causes of WWI**
 * 1) **The Alliance System**
 * **The Triple Entente** (Britain, France, and Russia)
 * **The Central Powers** (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy)
 * 1) Aggressive **Kaiser Wilhelm II** and German military policy
 * 2) Imperialist rivalry
 * Scramble for Africa (1881-1914)
 * 1911 Moroccan crisis between France and Germany
 * **Jingoism -** warlike sentiments among the European middle class and working class
 * 1) Arms Race
 * British **Dreadnoughts** and German **U-boats**
 * Standardized, proactive military planning and deployment strategies
 * 1) Social unrest
 * Strikes, labor unions, pro-socialist sentiments
 * Lack of desire amongst leaders to curtail war
 * 1) 1914 Assassination of **Archduke Ferdinand** in **Sarajevo** by a Serbian nationalist


 * 2) I see / It Means**




 * < **I see** ||< **It Means** ||
 * < # Leaders of five powers: Russia, Britain, France, Germany, and Austria-Hungary
 * 1) Ready to burst boiling pot labelled "Balkan Troubles"
 * 2) Leaders trying to contain the "troubles" ||< # Represents the five powers that were mainly involved with the growing tensions pre-WWI
 * 3) Refers to the Balkan nationalism and the growing prominence of Serbia that contested the Austrian-Hungarian control of the area.
 * 4) Shows how the alliance system was a volatile system; Russians supported Serbians,and if Serbians were able to weaken theAustrian-Hungarian state, the Central Power alliance will be for naught, and Germany would be facing a three pronged assault from three fronts: East, West, and navally. ||

>> >>> >>>
 * 3) Questions on Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points**
 * 1) How does this introduction relate to the causes of WWI?
 * The introduction references the imperialistic motives a ﻿nd saying that the alliance system is flawed that will only promote constant violence and large-scale warfare.
 * The days of conquest and aggrandizement is gone by, so is also the day of secret convenants
 * 1) What does Wilson suggest was the reason for American entry into the war?
 * The war violated natural rights, which go against the very being of American society. Above all, it is to defend the right of self-determinism for any sovereign state and the international responsibility to protect that institution from aggressors.
 * We entered this war because of violations of right ... and made the life of our own people impossible
 * Luisitania incident
 * determine its own institution
 * Self-determinism
 * 1) How would you summarize the main objectives of the 14 Points?
 * Free trade
 * II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and war
 * III. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions
 * Open diplomacy for peace/ transparency
 * I. Open convenants of peace ... shall proceed always frankly and in the public view
 * Disarmament to the point of self-defense
 * IV. guarentees ... that national armaments will be reduce to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety
 * Decolonization via self-determinism ~ includes Poland
 * V. A free ... adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon ... the principle that in determining ... questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned
 * obtaining for [Russia] an unhampered ... opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing
 * The peoples of Austria-Hungary ... should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development
 * Restoration of lands and sovereignty prior the war
 * evacuation of all Russian territory
 * Belgium ... must be evacuated and restored
 * All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored and ... Alsace-Lorraine
 * The Balkans and Asian Minor area should be protected
 * Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored
 * The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereingty
 * An international arbitrator to maintain peace
 * A general association of nations
 * 1) How might the colonies of Britain and France react to the 14 points?
 * The colonies would see the declaration of self-determinism as justification to rebel against colonial overlords and establish their autonomy. In addition, the document would convince them to do it since it implies multinational cooperation and enforcement of the Fourteen Points.

India >>>> >>> >>>> >>>
 * 3) Notes on Indian Independence**
 * 1) pg. 657-661
 * 2) **India: The Makings of the Nationalist Challenge to the British Raj**
 * India nationalism movement became a model and pioneer for other colonies
 * Western-educated elites took the lead
 * Charismatic leaders spread anti-colonialism among the mass
 * Peaceful protest
 * The **National Congress Party** championed independence and governed the post-colonial era
 * Formed by regional associations of Western-educated elites in Bombay, Poona, Calcutta, and Madras
 * Formed in 1885 with the blessing of high-up British officials
 * The British saw the Congress Party as a forum to hear out the Indian opinions
 * Led to the formation of a national identity
 * Lobbying, debate, and petitions focused on getting benefits for the elites though some members voiced concerns for the populace
 * Most members of the early Congress Party were loyalists
 * 1) **Social Foundations of a Mass Movements**
 * Indian businessmen resented the British favoritism and financially backed the Congress Party
 * Economic policies instated by the British such as the huge army, indulgent salaries and pensions, and buying British goods whenever possible impoverished the Indian peasantry and angered Indian businessmen
 * Regional famines were a result of a decline of food production due to the British policies that pushed peasants to farm cash crops such as cotton, jute, and indigo
 * 1) **The Rise of Militant Nationalism**
 * Nationalist leaders like **B. G. Tilak** believed that nationalism should appeal to the majority of the population, Hindus, instead of a minority, Muslims
 * Tilak was an extremely charismatic and radical leader
 * Worked to promote the restoration and revival of ancient traditions of Hinduism
 * Turned religious festivals into mass political demonstrations
 * Demanded a boycott of British institutions (boycott of British-manufactured goods, refuse to serve in the administration and military)
 * First nationalist leader with mass following, disappeared with his six year exile in Burma
 * Scared moderate and progressive Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs
 * Hindu communalists favored terrorism
 * Active throughout parts of India such as Bengal
 * Led by quasi-religious guru-style leaders
 * Focused on attacking British officials and buildings, but also attacked European civilians and collaborators
 * Defeated by British repressive measures before 1914 since they did not have the support of the people
 * The **Morley-Minto reforms** of 1909 allowed educated Indians with expanded opportunities to vote for and serve on local and all-India legislative councils
 * 1) **Ther Emergence of Ghandi and the Spread of the Nationalist Struggle**
 * Indians were initially supportive of the war
 * Wartime inflation caused restiveness
 * Peasants' crops' prices were capped and their produce could not be sold due to shipping shortage
 * Indian laborers saw a drop in their wages while their bosses grew rich from wartime production
 * Famines in many localities
 * Britain refused to honor the promise to allow India move steadily to self-government
 * **The Montagu-Chelmsford reforms** of 1919 increased the power of Indian legislators at the all-India level and place much of the provincial administration in their control
 * The **Rowlatt Act** (1919) place severe restrictions on Indian civil rights
 * Ghandi's **satyagraha**, the truth force, the nonviolent protest, pleased moderates and radicals and prevented the British from utilizing fully their military
 * 1) pg. 722-723
 * The British rejected the Indian National Congress's offer for support in concessions of power at the all-India level and Indian independence
 * The **Quit India movement** revived mass civil disobedience
 * The British imprisoned many protesters and leaders such as Gandhi, Nehru, and other Congress politicians
 * The British were supported by the Communist Party and the **Muslim League** led by **Muhammad Ali Jinnah**
 * The latter demanded the formation of a separate Muslim state and they were favored by the British
 * This was a major factor in decolonization
 * Inflation caused urban unrest and a widespread famine in 1943 and '44 caused bitterness in rural India
 * The Labour government that succeeded Churchill, and who were always willing to compromise, began the process of decolonization in 1945
 * Between '45 and '47, the future state(s) were decided, British gave Jinnah the ability to create a separate state of Pakistan


 * 4) Gandhi Leadership Analysis**


 * **Name of Leader:** Mohandas Gandhi ||
 * **Lifespan:** 1869 - 1948 || **Title:** Mahatma or "Great Soul" ||
 * **Country/region:** India || **Years in Power:** President of the National Congress Party 1921 - 1948 ||
 * **Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leader Gaining Power:**
 * Controlled by the British Empire
 * Indian intellectuals blamed them for their limitations and suffering
 * Hindu Indians resented their overlord's control
 * Served to feed the British economically in imports and exports
 * British officials already conceded bits of autonomy to India
 * Morley-Minto reforms of 1909
 * Promised Indian autonomy if Indians supported the war effort
 * Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919
 * Restricted by the Rowlatt Act of 1919
 * Wartime inflation and famine
 * Radicalism was not uncommon and militant under leaders like B. G. Tilak
 * Terrorism was common as well in areas such as Bengal ||
 * **Ideology, Motivation, Goals:**
 * Civil Disobedience based on his success in south Africa as a lawyer challenging restrictive laws imposed on the Indian community
 * Gain India's independence from British control ||
 * **Significant Actions & events During Term of Power**
 * The satyagraha
 * Launched the Quit India movement
 * United the people under one nationalist leader ||
 * **Short-Term effects:**
 * Anticolonial sentiments and protests surged throughout the 1920s and 1930s
 * The population was united under one nationalist leader || **Long-Term Effects**
 * Helped India gain its independence
 * Establishment of Pakistan ||


 * 5) Identity questions, Wordle, and Identity Chart**

The two identities prevalent at the time during the Indian partition were the National Congress Party led by Gandhi and constituted by western-educated Hindus. Though the Hindus have been one of the ethnically diverse peoples in history, the Congress Party allowed the Hindus to establish a national identity based on their culture and grievances against the British empire. The opposing identity were the Muslims led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League. Muslims have been in India as a prominent group since the establishment of the Delhi sultanate during the Abbasid period, and they feared that Hindu independence would mean Muslim subordination.
 * An important theme in Indian independence is the idea of Identity. Different identities played a role in the British decision to partition India.**


 * What is an Identity?
 * An identity is how one entity distinguishes itself from another entity.
 * How are our identities formed?
 * Our identities are formed through three factors: regarding the past, heritage; regarding the present, environment; regarding the future, experience.
 * How does our identity influence the way we see ourselves and others?
 * Our identities could make one feel superior or inferior, or question one's morality and values. In the end, our identities can be the catalyst for conflict or a mean to find peaceful coexistence.
 * What is conformity?
 * To assimilate and try one's best to copy the traits of another.
 * How does a society decide who belongs and who does not?
 * A society could have a plural vote, oligarchical vote, monarchical vote, etc. Every society has a way of filtering people, and it's simply a test. Does this person pass the test?
 * How do our attitudes and beliefs influence our thinking?
 * What we think is completely derived from our attitudes and beliefs.
 * What does it mean to belong to a group?
 * To belong to a group means to be considered with other people who share common trait(s).
 * How is membership defined and by whom is membership defined?
 * To be a member means to belong to a group. Membership is defined by the person himself in general. However, depending on the membership, it may be restricted to the decision of another body (oligarchy, plebiscite, monarchy, etc.)

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Middle East media type="custom" key="8866094"

Middle East ** 6) Outline p. 661 - 666 and p. 727-729 ** >> >>
 * 1) ** Egypt and the Rise of Nationalism in the Middle East **
 * ** Lord Cromer ** was the high commissioner who brought much needed reform
 * Economic reforms reduced the Khevite deficit
 * Overseered reforms in the bureaucracy and more public works
 * Benefitted mainly the foreign merchants, the Turco-Egyptian political elite, a small Egyptian bourgeoisie and the ayan (great landlords in the rural area)
 * The ayans, under the British, were as powerful as the Russian landlords under Peter and Catherine
 * The **effendi** were the prosperous business and professional families, and their sons, rural ayans, and Egyptian journalists led the nationalist movement
 * Newspapers in Arabic exposed British injustice
 * First nationalist party was formed in the 1890s, but there were a variety of rival parties
 * By 1907, there were three main alternatives
 * Excessive British repression was exemplified by the **Dinshawai incident** and destroyed all support for their continued presence
 * A group of British officers were shooting pigeons and show the prayer leader's wife, after retaliating, the British hung four Egyptians and demanded that accomplices serve punishment as well
 * Galvanized support for popular protest across communal and social boundaries -- ayans were joining the nationalist cause
 * By 1913, the British conceded a constitution and representation in Parliament
 * 1) ** War and Nationalist Movements in the Middle East **
 * **Mustafa "Ataturk" Kemal** rallied Turks and repelled Greek
 * By 1923, established Turkey
 * Launched sweeping program of reforms based on Western models
 * Latin alphabet, women rights (suffrage and empowerment)
 * Reflects trend of Westernization
 * Young Turks supported the Central Powers
 * Entente powers prevail and carve out **mandates/**enclaves in the Arab world despite promises to preserve the Arab autonomy
 * The sheriff of Mecca, **Hussein**, used this promise to convince Arabs to support Britain against the Turks
 * Nationalist movements increased during the 1920s and 1930s for countries like Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, etc. (the Palestine and Levant area)
 * The **Balfour Declaration** approved by the British War Cabinet promised **Zionists** right to Palestine postwar, in 1917
 * Conflicted with the promises given to Hussein and other Arab leaders
 * Convinced many Zionists to establish organizations promoting emigration to Palestine and establishing a Jewish state there
 * Such as the **Society for the Colonization of****Israel** during the last decades of the 1800s and the **World Zionist Organization** speared headed by prominent western European Jews such as **Theodor Herzl**
 * The Jewish diaspora was caused by **//pogroms,//** violent persecution of Jews, in Russia and Romania
 * Encouraged by thinkers like **Leon Pinsker** who saw assimilation impossible
 * Western European Jews generally opposed Zionism due to their success
 * Attempts to curtail Jewish emigration coupled with the British development of Arab leadership in Palestine caused Zionists to distrust British policies and amass an army to defend themselves from violent Arab resistance
 * Palestinian Arabs throughout the 1930s and 1940s did not speak for themselves
 * 1) ** Revolt in Egypt, 1919 **
 * Declared a protectorate in 1914, and excluded from the promise to Hussein
 * Martial law to protect the Suez from jihading Arabs greatly strained the food supply
 * Coupled with conscription, confiscation, and inflation, restiveness increased
 * A delegation of Egyptians were denied an audience at Versailles
 * Called for mass demonstrations that quickly turned into insurgency
 * British repressed the violence but conceded the **Wafd party** led by **Sa'd Zaghul** that gained massive popular support
 * Withdrawal of Egypt began in 1922 and ended in 1936
 * Reserved the right to reoccupy
 * Preserved the khedival regime
 * Many Egyptian politicians saw the newfound political independence to enrich themselves
 * The Wafd, Liberal Constitutionalist and Union parties failed to provide relief to the peasantry
 * The decolonization of Egypt shows how revolution is not necessary good


 * The Sykes-Picot agreement in 1916 between British and French decided to carve up the Arab world**
 * --> Balfour Agreement gave Promised Land to Zionists (US support) and Arabs (Arab support) in 1917**
 * --> 1918 and Fourteen Points and self-determination**
 * --> Goes with the Skyes-Picot idea, 1919 mandates (French Syria and Lebanon and British-elsewhere)**
 * --> War of oil?**
 * **1930's British and US drilling in Middle East such as areas in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia**
 * --> WWII and Holocaust > 1948 establishment of Israel**
 * --> Invasion of Israel on the day of creation by Egypt, Syria, Trans-Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq**
 * --> 1949 truce and Israel expanded**
 * --> Isolate the Middle East and provoked a nationalistic return to pan-Arabicism and Islam**


 * 1) **Conflicting Nationalisms: Arabs, Israelis, and the Palestinian Question**
 * Greater autonomy was gained after WWII and were not able to shake of the western dominance of the oil fields until the 1970s
 * All Arab peoples were liberated by the early 1960s
 * International sympathy for Zionism increased during the war
 * Increased emigration was met with Arab resistance and British restructions
 * British quotas increased after a revolt between 1936-1939 that decimated Palestinian Arab leadership
 * Met with Zionist resistence spearheaded by the **Haganah,** a regular Zionist military force, and underground terrorist forces
 * Promoted the UN partition of palestine between Arabs and Jews
 * Jews were able to fend off and increase their size

>>> >>
 * 7) Outline p.798-801 and p. 802-804**
 * 1) **Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolutions**
 * Military officials used the force at their disposal with little regards to collateral damage
 * Military leaders were often supported by western government for theit anticommunist stance
 * Banned civilian political parties and imposed martial law with varying levels of repression and authoritarianism
 * Uganda, Myanmar, and Congo experience regimes that crushed civil liberties without reducing social inequities or improving living standards
 * Notorious for corruption, torture, imprisonment, etc.
 * **Gamal Abdul Nasser** took power in Egypt after a 1952 military coup
 * Put in power through the **Free Officers movment** led by the secret Revolutionary Command Council allied with the **Muslim Brotherhood**
 * Influenced by the failures as the Arab-Israeli War of 1948 and the continuing Israelite occupation of the Suez Canal zone
 * Muslim brotherhood was established in 1928 by reform-minded student of Muhammad Abduh, **Hasan al-Banna**
 * Focused on social reform
 * Utilized terrorism and organized mass demostrations and riots
 * al-Banna was assassinated in 1949, but the party continued to expand influence
 * Disbanded by 1954 after an attempt at Nasser's life
 * Nasser used his dictorial powers greatly
 * Imposed land reform (land limits and redistribution) and state financed education though college
 * Frustrated by bureaucratic corruption and the ayans
 * Promoted industrial growth templates based on the Soviet model
 * Failed due to insufficient funding and mismanagement
 * Used protective internal economic policies
 * Attempted to oust British and French forces and the Israeli state
 * Failed miserably in the Six-Day War with Israel in 1967
 * Answan Dam failed miserably
 * Made the lower Delta less fertile
 * Increased blindness due to paracites
 * Under **Anwar Sadat,** the middle class rose again as a powerful force, the Soviets were expelled and Egypt was open arms to the West, and revoked Egypt support for Arab revolutions
 * **Hosni Mubarak** continued Sadat's policies that failed to bridge the gap between the poor and rich
 * Discontent could be clearly seen by the rise of fundamentalist organizations
 * 1) **The Indian Alternative: Development for Some of the People**
 * India managed to preserve civilian rule since the military opposed religious extremism and authoritarianism
 * Compare to Egypt, India was better off with better economic sectors, communications, and managements
 * **Jawaharlal Nehru** and early Congress Party leaders were deeply commited to social reform, economic growth, and civil liberty
 * Opposing parties controlled local and state governments, but the Congress party was the main national party for most of the time
 * Nehru encouraged foreign support and state intervention
 * Encouraged ambitious farmers to adopt the **Green Revolution**
 * Allowed for development **(electrification, family planning, public work, and education projects)** by increasing crop yield and government revenues to fund the projects
 * Established a leading high-tech sector
 * India lacked the resources and means to raise the living standards
 * Weathly landlords continue to dominate tenants and landless laborers
 * Most Indian gradualist reforms supported the affluent and continues to do so
 * 1) **Iran: Religious Revivalism and the Rejection of the West**
 * The Khomeini revolution of 1979 led by **Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini** was a return to fundamentalism, just like the Mahdi regime of Sudan in the 1880s
 * Aimed to overthrow Western governments, such as the Iranian shah and the Pahlavi dynasty
 * Both leaders (the Mahdi and Khomeini) claimed divinity
 * Promised invincibility and entrance to paradise for waging jihads
 * Iran was loosely controlled by Great Britain and Russia who exerted their spheres of influence
 * Infrastructures were underdeveloped compared to formally colonized areas
 * Lacking a Western-educated bloc to constitute nationalism as westernization
 * Had to be imposed by the Pahlavi shahs
 * The 2nd shah used Iran's oil wealth to move Iran out of its isolationism
 * Fled and restored to power in 1953 via a CIA coup and attempted to impose economic and social changes through government directives
 * Dictatorial and repressive regime offended emerging middle classes
 * His disregards for Islamic practices enraged the //**ayatollahs**//, or religious experts, and alienated the //mullahs//
 * Western/elitist favoritism annoyed small bazaar merchants, angered the land-owning class, and infuriated the rural poor
 * Khomeini repressed constitutional and leftists parties
 * Moderate leaders were replaced with radical leaders
 * Secular laws were replaced with Islamic legal codes
 * Sudden decrease in women's rights
 * Reforms could not be fully implemented since the Iran-Iraq War against Saddam Hussein drained Iranian resources for the decade after Khomeini came into power
 * By 1988, Khomeini was forced to concede an armistice and the Iranian populace found itself with shortages of life necessities
 * Continued isolationism and theocracy, but signs of more democratic principles


 * 8) Leader Analysis on Nasser and Khomeini**
 * **Name of Leader:** Gamal Abdul Nasser ||
 * **Lifespan:** 1918-1970 || **Title:** Second President of Egypt ||
 * **Country/region:** Egypt || **Years in Power:** 1952-1970 ||
 * **Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leaders Gaining Power**
 * Governed by the corrupt and inept khedival regime and a bureaucracy filled with self-serving purposes
 * Britain maintained control of the Suez Canal area
 * Consisted of various underground organizations such as the **Free Officers** and the **Muslim Brotherhood** ||
 * **Ideology, Motivation, Goals:**
 * Use dictatorial powers to impose policies that he believed would uplift the masses
 * Interventionist policy towards the Jerusalem ||
 * **Significant Actions & events During Term of Power:**
 * Created the Aswan Dam
 * 1956 coup to expel the British from the Suez Canal
 * Attack Jerusalem on its day of creation
 * Disastrous Six-Day War with Israel in 1967 ||
 * **Short-Term effects:**
 * Provided the basis of industrialization
 * Temporary development economically
 * Redistributed some land || **Long-Term Effects**
 * Created a condition in which his successors were unable to bridge the rich-impoverished gap due to his failed financial expenditures
 * The Aswan Dam lowered the fertility of the Lower Nile Delta ||


 * **Name of Leader:** Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini ||
 * **Lifespan:** 1902-1989 || **Title:** Grand Ayatollah ||
 * **Country/region:** Iran || **Years in Power:** 1979-1989 ||
 * **Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leaders Gaining Power**
 * Loosely controlled by the British and Soviets
 * Underdeveloped communications
 * Lack of Western-educated bloc
 * Undisciplined army
 * Western-orientated shahs instated by the United States ||
 * **Ideology, Motivation, Goals:**
 * Fundamentalism
 * Suppression of heretics and dissidents
 * Anti-westernization ||
 * **Significant Actions & events During Term of Power**
 * Iran-Iraq War
 * 1988 armistice with Iraq ||
 * **Short-Term effects:**
 * >>> || **Long-Term Effects**
 * Reinstated Islamic law codes
 * Subordinated women
 * Isolated Iran from the world
 * The war with Iraqis leave the nation suffering from shortages of life necessities ||


 * 9) Summary of the Middle East**
 * The Middle East was a term coined by Europeans to divide the areas once controlled by the Ottomans. Once the Ottoman Empire fell and the Eastern Question came to a close, countries around the Arabian peninsula were considered the Middle East for their cultural similarities. The Middle East was colonized by European powers during the 19th century (most notably the British) and throughout the 20th century, there has been anti-colonial, nationalist revolutions. In countries like Egypt, nationalism was guided by parties of Western-educated, land-owning middle class and upper class who gathered behind one group/leader to rebel. In other countries, nations were instated a leader by an outside force, such as the United States instating the shahs in Iran. In general, all postcolonial governments at the get-go were democratic, westernizing states. After that phase, the two common paths were military dictatorship and religious fundamentalism dictatorship. For the former, states may or may not have developed anti-western sentiments, but for the latter, that was definitely the case. A special case in the Middle East arises from the establishment of a non-Muslim state: Jerusalem. Born from dual-sided British deals, the Zionist state established itself within Palestine and continues to repel Arab assaults.

Africa >>>>> >> >>>> >>>>>
 * 10) Outline p.666-669,** **p.723 - 727,** **p. 804 - 806**
 * 1) **Beginnings of the Liberation Struggle in Africa**
 * Small precolonial western-educated bloc
 * Staunchly loyal to overlords
 * Heavily involved in WWI
 * Postwar restiveness was caused by the African's exposure to European weakness, broken postwar promises for political organization, and discontent over the Great Depression
 * Western-educated politicians did not link up with urban workers or peasants as other nationalists did elsewhere until the 1940s
 * Some early African American nationalists (e.g. **Marcus Garvey** and **W.E.B. Du Bois**) began organizing **pan-African** organizations in the 1920s and 1930s
 * Pan-Africanism did much to arouse anti-colonial sentiment
 * Since the French were much more restrictive about political organization, nationalists were centralized in Paris during the mid-1920s whereas the more tolerant British colonial nationalists focused their efforts in their areas
 * The **négritude** literary movement in France (championed by people like **Léopold Sédar Senghor, Léon Damas** and **Aimé Césaire**) reversed racial stereotypes about African intellectual inferiority
 * In British territories, African leaders were able to establish pan-colony associations such as the **National Congress of British West Africa**
 * However, these organizations dissipated into local groups concerned with individual colonies by the 1920s
 * Strengthened when Britain allowed Western-educated Africans to represent in colonial advisory councils
 * 1) **Liberation of Non-settler Africa**
 * Conscriptions, confiscations, inflation, and increased racial discrimination turned many Africans, well-versed in European weaponry, against their overlords
 * Wartime demands lifted inhibiting colonial economic policies and allowed for massive industrialization, urbanization, and a rural diaspora
 * An idle workforce comprised of rural migrants contributed to the discontent utilized by nationalists
 * Two paths for non-settler decolonization: restiveness (radicalism) and negotiations/concessions (gradualism)
 * 1) **Kwame Nkrumah**, the Prime Minister of Ghana -- in 1957-- (the Gold Coast) was the radical leader who united nationalists throughout British and French colonies and American nationalists
 * He returned to Ghana in the 1940s when the area was experiencing widespread civil disobedience until 1948 when it developed into rioting led primarily by urban workers, farmers, and a western-educated bloc
 * Established the **Convention Peoples Party (CPP)** since he was objective of moderate African leader's reluctance to organize dissident groups into a sustained mass movement
 * 1) The French made negotiations with high westernized leaders such as Senghor and **Felix Houphouât-Boingy** that allowed for reforms, political advancement, and the domination of moderate African leaders during and post independence.
 * By 1960s, all French west African colonies were free
 * 1) Belgium fled from Congo in 1960 despite having no Western-educated bloc to lead nationalist opposition
 * Settler societies were practically done by the mid-1960s
 * 1) **Repression and Guerrilla War: The Struggle for the Settler Colonies**
 * In settler colonies such as Algeria, Kenya, and South Africa, the European elite (such as the Boers/Afrikaners) blocked indigenous nationalism and concessions to support them
 * African leaders, who could not gain results from peaceful protest, resolved to violence
 * 1) Kenya
 * It begins in the 1950s as **Jomo Kenyatta** and the **Kenya Africa Union (KAU)** leading the **Land Freedom Army** led guerrilla attacks against the British, settlers, and loyalists
 * A 1954 failed coup has Kenyatta and the KAU imprisoned by the British who saw the "Mau Mau" an insurgency of savagery
 * The Mau Mau was suppressed in 1956, but the British became open to negotiations
 * Kenyatta was released and Kenya was independent (under a one-party rule) by 1963
 * 1) Algeria
 * The French were hellbent on retaining Algeria since the French already retreated from Vietnam
 * The **National Liberation Front (FLN)** mobilized the Arabs and Berbers into a full-scale revolt
 * Under de Gaulle came to power in 1958, the French began to negotiate independence with Algerians but his efforts were setback by violent settler backlash
 * The **Secret Army Organization (OAS)** attack Arabs, Berbers, and sympathizers while ending the Fourth Republic in a coup in 1958
 * They attempted to kill de Gaulle and overthrow the Fifth Republic
 * Gained independence in 1962
 * 1) **The Persistence of White Supremacy in South Africa**
 * Violent revolutions throughout the 1980s ended settler dominance in Angola (1975), Mozambique (1975), and Southern Rhodesia/Zimbabwe (1980)
 * Afrikaners, being born to the area, saw themselves with an identity distinct from the Dutch and British overlords
 * Afrikaners were blatantly racist and the Boer War concluded with political concessions that gave Afrikaners internal political control, including that overly blacks
 * Centralized as the **Afrikaner National Party** in 1948 and gained South African independence in 1961
 * Passed thousands of laws that created the **apartheid** system
 * Similar to American Black Codes
 * 1) **The Apartheid State and its Demise**
 * South Africa was the largest, most populous, and prosperous area by the 1970s still as a colony
 * The apartheid was to instutionalize white minority rule, ensuring political and economic monopolization for British and Dutch descended whites
 * In order to weaken the blacks, the state created **homelands** based on ethnolingual standards to divide the black Africans
 * Homelands were impoverished and overpopulated, making them ideal places to find cheap labor for mines, factories, and farms
 * Favoritism were shown to some leaders and groups to maintain interconflicts and curtail unification
 * In order to maintain the apartheid, a well-equipped, well-trained police force was established and heavily funded by the state
 * Ruthless suppressed illegal protest, violent or not
 * Leaders like **Walter Smith** and **Nelson Mandela** were imprisoned in maximum-security prisons, **Steve Biko** and others of the Black Consciousness movement were murdered in custody, and organizations like the **African National Congress** were outlawed
 * Guerilla warfare onwards from 1960
 * Intensified oppression continued until the late 1980s when an international boycott, costly failed military expenditures, and the continued conflicts with guerillas convinced white Afrikaners to negotiate with leaders such as moderate **F. W. de Klerk** and the then released Mandela
 * Peaceful protest and enfranchisement was granted by 1994
 * Mandela became the first black president and the National Congress party gained power
 * de Klerk's party, who was supported by the whites, conceded power peacefully allowing for a pluralist democracy
 * Bitter intertribal rivalries between Zulus and Xhosa still exist


 * Nation || Date || Colonial Power || Nature of Movement || Key Leader(s) || Success? ||
 * Algeria || 1962 || France || * Violent (Million Man Revolution, 1954-1962 of fighting) || * National Liberation Front led by Mohamed Ahmed Ben Bella
 * Abdelhamid Ben Badis and the Association of Algerian ulama || * Multiparty democracy with legislative branch
 * Strong agricultual sector with rising industrial sector ||
 * Angola || 1975 || Portugal || * Violent -- guerilla || * Holder Alvaro Roberto
 * (Peoples' Movement for the Liberation of Angola) MPLA
 * UNITA
 * FNLA || * High health concerns and low life expectancy
 * Socialist
 * Primarily agricultural
 * Oil and diamond
 * Misdistributed wealth
 * "Republican"government with multilateralism, three branches, and Portuguese law system ||
 * Belgian Congo || 1960 || Belgium || * Belgium retreat and infighting || * King Leopold II -- Belgium King
 * Patrice Lumumba -- first Prime Minister of Republic of Congo || * Republic
 * Civil Wars
 * Oil economy ||
 * Ghana || 1957 || Britain || * Civil disobedience
 * Boycott
 * Minimally violent after 1948 since a peaceful veterans march was fired upon || * Kwame Nkrumah and the United Gold Coast Convention/Convention Peoples Party
 * Western-educated bloc
 * "Big Six" leaders, one of which was Nkrumah || * One of the highest GDP
 * Primarily subsistence argiculture, but stable economy
 * Freedom of speech
 * High literacy rate
 * Highly synergetic westernism
 * Welfare system ||
 * Guinea || 1958 || France || * Peaceful with junta || * Samory Toure || * Military dictatorship until 2010
 * Primarily agricultural
 * Corrupted and favortist government
 * One of the lowest literacy rate in the world ||
 * Kenya || 1963 || British || * Violent - Mau Mau rebellion || * Tom Mboya
 * Jomo Kenyatta and the Kenya African Union
 * Secret Mau Mau society (guerillas)
 * Pan-Africaners || * Low economic success
 * Widespread illegal drug use
 * Low health ||
 * South Africa || 1960 || Britain || * Violent || * Shaka Zulu
 * Alfred Milner - High commissioner of South Africa in 1987
 * Jan Smuts - Prime Minister
 * Nelson Mandela
 * Paul Kruger - Prominent Boer
 * Mahtma Ghandi || * Republic with three branches
 * Middle Income ||
 * Zimbabwe || 1980 || Britain || Violent; years and years of war between the white minority and black nationalists || * Canaan Banana
 * Robert Mugabe
 * Suceeded Banana and is the current president || * One of the riches colonies to one of the poorest
 * Many divisions between the people
 * Embargoed by the West
 * Low literacy ||
 * Summary of African decolonization:**
 * During the mid-20th century, it was the period of African nationalism that took many forms. Predecessors of these movements could go as far back as **black nationalism** and **pan-Africanism** promoted by nationalists such as **Marcus Garvey** and **W.E.B. Du Bois** from America. In Africa, the first successful nationalist movement within the British Gold Coast was achieved by peaceful means. Civil disobedience led by **Nkrumah** convinced the British to pull out of the newly established Ghana in 1957. As for most other cases, the process of decolonization was not peaceful. In most cases, the repression of nationalism was fierce since plenty of colonies were either prized of settler colonies. In Kenya, guerrillas of the **Mau Mau** society fought for years against the British as did guerrillas in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Except for South Africa, which was prosperous due to its white minority rule, the succeeding governments in those new nations were inept and led to their current day status. The latter result was the common fate of most areas; after a process of decolonization, the succeeding, usually authoritarian government, failed to meet the needs of the new nation and led to its general decline to current day.